Outline the key theoretical claims of restorative justice and critically evaluate its advantages and disadvantages as applied to contemporary punishment practices in the UK.

Abstract Restorative justice describes various processes designed to correct the harm that the criminal inflicts on it’s victims and communities (Braithwaite,1999). It requires all parties; victims, offenders and communities, to establish ways of repairing the harm of crime and prevent it from happening again (Strickland, 2004, Cornwell, 2009). Although such practices may be seen as a more equitable and humane form of justice, it has been criticised for extending the criminal justice system (net-widening) (Garland, 2001) and for it’s propensity to ‘privatise’ the justice estate, by its use of informal and less accountable forms of, what Foucault refers to as ‘governmentality’ (Foucault, 1975, Pavlich, 2013). However, research shows that restorative justice has been successful in reducing reoffending rates and more significantly, giving a voice to the victims of crime, previously ignored by the prevailing criminal justice system. Introduction Restorative justice describes various processes designed to correct the harm that the criminal inflicts on it’s victims and communities (Braithwaite,1999). It requires all parties; victims, offenders and communities, to establish ways of repairing the harm of crime and prevent it from happening again (Strickland, 2004, Cornwell, 2009). This paper will explore the conceptual underpinnings of the restorative approach that will examine it’s development within the theoretical and practical framework of contemporary punishment practices. It will argue that those who advocate restorative justice claim that traditional ways of responding to harm tend to neglect the needs of victims and communities (Braithwaite, 1999). Van Ness & Strong (2010) contend that the prevailing policies and practices of the criminal justice system focus entirely on the offender as law breaker, that only address legal guilt and punishment (Stohr et al,2012). Further, over the last three decades, within the context of the rise of neo-liberal populism, that has seen decline of the rehabilitative ideal, restorative justice practices have the potential to mitigate the worst excesses of punitive punishments (Garland, 2001). However, the theoretical underpinnings of restorative justice, as this paper will show, has been attacked in various ways, due, in part, to its propensity to either be seen as undermining the impartiality of the criminal justice system, or as yet another form of what Foucault (1975) describes as ‘governmentality’. From this perspective, restorative justice is seen as an informal process that results in a net-widening of state control (Garland, 2001, Pavlich, 2013). This, in turn, has generated a significant ideological debate over the future of criminal justice (Johnstone & Van Ness, 2007). Proponents of restorative justice, however, argue that within the prevailing punitive regime, the increase in custodial sentences has generated a penal crisis that may be mitigated by the use of restorative approaches (Cavadino & Dignan, 2006). Restorative justice may therefore be seen as a significant and pragmatic means of lowering the rate of recidivism and bringing about a more humane and equitable justice (Sim, 2008, Cornwell, 2009). The Demise of the Rehabilitative Ideal Since the eighteenth century, idea’s surrounding state punishment have led to a mixture of approaches that prevail today (Stohr et al, 2012). Clarkson, 2005, suggests that these theories in turn have generated continual discourse surrounding the moral justifications for punishment, which are; retributivism, deterrence, rehabilitation and incapacitation. Sim (2009), citing Foucault, argues that although the prevailing literature on the history of the criminal justice system has placed an emphasis on the shifts and discontinuities in the apparatus of punishment, such as the move from retributive punishment toward a more progressive rehabilitative approach, since the mid 1970s punishment has been underpinned and legitimated by a political and populist hostility to offenders (ibid, Garland 2001, Cornwell, 2009). Garland (2001) argues that the last three decades has seen a shift away from the assumptions and ideologies that shaped crime control for most of the twentieth century. To day’s practices of policing and penal sanctions, Garland argues, pursue new objectives in a move away from the penal welfarism (rehabilitation) that shaped the 1890s?1970s approach of policy makers, academics and practitioners. Cornwell (2009) argues that although the rehabilitative model of punishment was seen as a progressive approach in the middle years of the last century, when it was widely accepted that the provision of ‘treatment and training’ would change the patterns of offending behaviour, the ideology failed to work out in practice (Garland, 2001). In turn, there became a disenchantment with the rehabilitative approach, and the ‘Nothing Works’ scenario became an accepted belief, given the reality of prison custody (Martinson, 1974). Muncie (2005) claims that the 1970s neo-liberal shift in political ideology saw the rehabilitative welfare model based on meeting individual needs, regress back towards a ‘justice model’ (retributi ve), that is more concerned with the offence than the offender. From the 1990s, Muncie argues, ‘justice’ has moved away from due process and rights to an authoritarian form of crime control. The Prison Crisis Cornwell (2009) claims that the effect of the ‘justice model’ on the prison population cannot be overstated (Sim, 2008). In England and Wales in 1990 the average daily prison population stood at around 46,000, by 1998 this figure increased to over 65,000, by 2009 the number rose to 82,586 (ibid). Further, the findings in the 2007 Commission on Prison’s suggest that a ‘crisis’ now defines the UK penal system (The Howard League, 2007). Despite a 42,000 decline in reported crime since 1995, the Commission argue, the prison population has soared to a high of 84,000 in 2008, more than doubling since 1992. Cornwell (2009) claims that at present the costs of keeping an offender in prison stands at around ?40,000 per year, where the estimated cost of building new prisons to accommodate the rise of the prison population will take huge resources of public money. Prison has therefore become the defining tool of the punishment process, where the United Kingdom (U K) now imprisons more of its population than any other country in Western Europe (ibid: p.6). A History of Restorative Justice In response to the prison crisis, experimentation in the 1990s began to see various forms of restorative justice models in order to mitigate retributive punishment and as a means of re-introducing a greater emphasis on the rehabilitation ideal (Muncie, 2005). The arguments for restorative forms of justice, Cornwell (2009) claims, are not just about cost and sustainability on national resources, but more significantly, the notion of the type of unjust society the United Kingdom (UK) is likely to become unless this surge in punitive sanctions is not abated (ibid, Sim, 2009). Cornwell (2009) suggests that the main strength of the restorative justice model is that it is ‘practitioner led’, deriving from the practical experience of correctional officials and academics who have a comprehensive understanding of the penal system. From a ‘Nothing Works’ (Martinson, 1974) to a ‘What Works’ experience, the emphasis of restorative justice has been to identi fy a more humane, equitable and practical means of justice that goes beyond the needs of the offender (rehabilitative goal) toward addressing the victims and their communities (Cornwell, 2009). Restorative Justice ? Theory and Practice Howard Zehr (2002), envisioned restorative justice as addressing the victim’s needs or harm that holds offenders accountable to put right the harm that involves the victims, offenders and their communities (Zehr, 2002). The first focus is on holding the offender accountable for harm, the second is the requirement that in order to reintegrate into society, offenders must do something significant to repair the harm. Third, there should be a process through which victims, offenders and communities have a legitimate stake in the outcomes of justice (Cornwell, 2009.p:45). In this way, Zehr (2002) redefines or redirects the harm of crime away from its definition of a violation of the state, toward a violation of one person by another. At the same time, the focus of establishing blame or guilt shifts toward a focus on problem solving and obligations. As a result, communities and not the state become the central facilitators in repairing and restoring harm (ibid). Although restorative justice has received wide recognition across many western countries together with the endorsement of the Council of Europe in 1999, progress toward the implementation of restorative justice principles into mainstream criminal justice practices is slow (Cornwell, 2009). Further, restorative justice, both in theory and practice continues to generate a substantial and contentious debate (Morris, 2002). Restorative Justice ? A Critique Acorn (2005) argues that ‘justice’ has traditionally symbolised the scales of impartiality on the one hand, and the sword of power, on the other. Justice is thereby possible when a neutral judge calculates a fair balance of accounts to make decisions that are backed by state power. Restorative justice, by its practice of informal dispute resolutions, can be seen as a call to a return of a ‘privatised’ form of justice (ibid, Strang & Braithwaite, 2002). This criticism is qualified by the propensity of restorative justice advocates (Braithwaite, 1989) that critique punitive justice responses and thereby view the power of the state as harmful. This in turn, at least theoretically, erodes state power and state created crime categories, thereby threatening to create a ‘privatised’ justice process (Strang & Braithwaite, 2002). Within this process, Strang & Braithwaite (2002) argue, restorative justice cannot be seen to ‘legitimately’ deal with crimes. Acorn (2004) suggests that unlike the prevailing criminal justice system, the desire to punish (retribution) is replaced by a version of justice that is centred on specifically nuanced concepts of harm, obligation, need, re-integration and forgiveness. Such values guide Family Group Conferences, Community Mediation, Victim-Offender Commissions and various forms of tribunals (Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)) (MacLaughlin et al, 2003). Family Group Conferences is a prominent practice in restorative justice, that includes community members (paid or unpaid) to ‘hear’ disputes and help parties to resolve conflicts. However, rather than a diversion from the criminal justice system, such conferences involve offenders already convicted (Acorn, 2004). Garland (2001) views this arrangement a form of ‘net-widening’, where informal justice becomes part of the social landscape that encompasses a widening and ever expanding form of crime control (ibid) . Although restorative justice advocates argue that informal justice creates domains of freedom that empower victims, offenders and communities, opponents claim that restorative justice represents another pernicious way in which community mediation expands state control, while claiming to do precisely the opposite (Acorn, 2004, Garland, 2001, Pavlich, 2013). Restorative justice proponents are clear in their critique of the criminal justice system that is seen to not represent victims or their communities, where state officials, such as the police, lawyers and judges, are impartial, and thereby have no direct understanding of those affected by criminal offenses (Pavlich, 2013). Here, Pavlich refers to Foucault’s concept of ‘governmentality’, where the state subtly arranges the background settings to produce subjects who think and act in ways that do not require direct coercion, in what Foucault terms the ‘conduct of conduct’ (Pavlich, 2013, Foucault, 1975). In this way, Foucault argues, self governed subjects are produced when they buy into the logic and formulated identities of a given governmentality (Foucault, 1975). Garland and Sparks (2000) claim that restorative justice, as a form of govermentality has, in part, come about by the increased attention, over the last twenty-five years, toward the rights of the ‘victim’. Here, Garland (2001) argues that the last two decades has seen the rise of a distinctly populist current in penal politics that no longer relies on the evidence of the experts and professional elites. Whereas a few decades ago public opinion functioned as an occasional restraint on policy initiatives, it now operates as a privileged source. Within this context, Garland argues, victims have attained an unprecedented array of ‘rights’ within the criminal justice system, ranging from; ‘the right to make victim impact statements’, the right to be consulted in prosecutions, sentencing and parole together with notifications of offenders post release movements and the right to receive compensation. Further, the right to receive service provision ent ails the use of Victim Support agencies who help people address their feelings and offer practical help and assistance, mitigating the negative impact of crime (Reeves and Mulley, 2000). Wright (2000) suggests that while such developments may be seen as a triumph for victim support movements, these reforms do not fundamentally alter the structural position of victims. This, Wright explains, is because the punitive structural system remains intact whereby the victim’s interests will necessarily remain secondary to the wider public interest, represented by the crown (Wright, 2000). It can be argued that while critics may be seen as correct in their perception of restorative justice as a form of governmentality or net-widening by the state, the attack may be seen as premature, given the early stages of its development (Cornwell, 2009). Cornwell argues that critics have not given restorative justice enough time to develop and potentially emerge as a stand alone resolution to the problem of crime and its repercussions for the victims, offenders and their communities (ibid). Restorative justice programmes are still at an embryonic stage, where they are attracting critique, mainly due to their attachment to the Criminal Justice System (Cornwell, 2009, Morris, 2002, Ministry of Justice, 2012). Cornwell (2009) also addresses the argument that the restorative approach places too much emphasis on the status it affords to the victims of crime. In reality, Cornwell suggests, that status is very much based on political rhetoric rather than actual reform. The publication of the Criminal Justice Act 2003 that anticipated an advance in restorative and reparative measures into the criminal justice system, in reality bought in a much more punitive provision. Restorative measures under the Act are initiated on the basis of a ‘mix and match’ arrangement for ‘custody plus minus’. Here, (Garrielides, 2003) points out that restorative justice has therefore become somewhat removed from its underlying theory (Garrielides, 2003). Put simply, the restorative approach has been cherry picked to support other punitive initiatives, leaving its central tenets at the margins of the criminal justice system (Cornwell, 2009). Restorative Justice – Does it Work? Since the 1990s a number of restorative justice trial schemes began to take place, in order to measure success in terms of re-offending and victim satisfaction. According to a Ministry of Justice Report (Shapland et al, 2008), measuring the success of restorative justice against criminal justice control groups, it was found that offenders who took part in restorative justice schemes committed statistically significantly fewer offences (in terms of reconvictions) in the subsequent two years than offenders in the control group. Further, although restorative justice has been generally reported to be more successful within youth justice, this research showed no demographic differences, for example; in age, ethnicity, gender or offence type. The report also showed that eighty-five percent of victims were happy with the process (ibid). These results are reflected in various case studies. Published by the Restorative Justice Council (2013) the following gives an example of the positive impa ct that restorative justice can have on the victim, the offender and communities: Arrested in February last year, Jason Reed was sentenced to five years in prison after admitting to more than fifty other burglaries. During the criminal justice process, Jason expressed his wish to start afresh and make amends, so he was referred to the post-conviction restorative justice unit. After a full assessment to ensure his case was suitable for restorative justice measures, three conferences took place between Jason and five of his victims. The victims had different motivations for taking part and they were able to express their upset and anger directly to the offender. Jason agreed to pay back an agreed amount of compensation and the victims showed some acceptance and forgiveness (Restorative Justice Council, 2013). Conclusion Overall, this paper has argued that restorative justice may be seen as an attempt to address the disillusion within the criminal justice system in the 1970s that had conceded that ‘Nothing Works’. The demise of the rehabilitative ideal (Garland, 2001), against the backdrop of political shifts toward a neo-liberal ideology, bought about a more punitive, retributive stance toward punishment and offending (Sim, 2008). As a result, the rise in prison populations has bought about a penal crisis. In response, new initiatives in restorative justice began to develop, emerging as a more equitable, humane form of punishment (Cornwell, 2009). The advantages of the restorative approach cannot be overstated, as this paper shows, rather than the state focusing on the offender (as is the case with the prevailing criminal justice system), restorative justice seeks to address the needs of the victim and community participation (Zehr, 2002). In practical terms, there appears to be some su ccess in terms of re-offending and victim satisfaction (Ministry of Justice, 2008). Despite the criticisms (Garland, 2001), it can be argued that restorative justice demonstrates an opportunity and potential to mitigate the worst excesses of the criminal justice system and bring about a more equitable and humane approach (Cornwell, 2009). Word count: 2654 Bibliography Acorn, A (2004) Compulsory Compassion: A Critique of Restorative Justice. Vol 14, No.6 (June 2004) pp. 446-448. University of British Columbia Press Bottoms, A, Gelsthorpe, S Rex, S (2013) Community Penalties: Change & Challenges. 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Foreign Aid as a tool for Foreign Policy

Foreign aid is defined as voluntary transfer of resources from one country to another country, at times as leverage to cohorts the receiving country do what the donor country wants. But it may be given as a signal of diplomatic approval, or to strengthen a military ally, to reward a government for behavior desired by the country giving the aid, to extend the donor's cultural influence, or to gain political strength here at home as abroad. According to the USAID website, foreign aid is given through eight different types of monetary assistance. These eight different forms of assistance are agriculture, democracy and governance, economic growth and trade, environment, education and training, global health, global partnerships, and humanitarian assistance. From 1980 to 2008, U. S. total foreign assistance has increased from 9. 69 billion to just over 49 billion in 2008. From the 49 billion spent in 2008 alone, close to 15. 5 billion was spent on military aid while the rest was divided between economic assistance in fields such as agriculture, international development, and other economic growth and trade programs. The largest recipients of the two foreign aid subdivisions, military and economic aid, went respectively to the regions of the Middle East and Sub-Saharan Africa. The country in the Middle East with the highest recipient of aid was Afghanistan, with close to 9 of the 49 billion dollars of aid in the 2008 year alone (USAID, 2013. ) As we can see a lot of our tax payer’s money goes abroad to countries many American cannot find on a world map, but we need to help these countries for the safety of our people, at least in the eyes of every politicians in office. American liberals, as described by Bob Burnett of the Huffington Post, fall between two primary types of camps that determine their views of U. S. Foreign Aid. Idealists and realist camps, focus on the need for international humanitarian aid which is similar to our own domestic welfare on a national level (Burnett, 2006. ) They tend to favor foreign aid as a means to educate and develop relationships through cooperation and financial funding. Other far left liberal groups discourage military spending while encouraging to increase social programs internationally. They believe that poverty stricken countries in need of assistance otherwise known as â€Å"Third World† countries are indebted to other countries which lead to their current status as reported on the Green Party Platform (GPP, 2000. ) As a primary focus to foreign aid and success to developing nations is the assistance to increase food production, availability to clean drinking water, reduction of infant mortality, and improvements toward health by means of the green revolution. Lastly, they utilize terms of humanitarian aid as to be consistent with their egalitarian values. In recent discussion to reform the current foreign aid policy, Democratic representative Howard Berman introduces a reform proposal â€Å"Global Partnership Act of 2012† to replace the 1961 Foreign Assistance Act. This policy would restore budget functions towards the USAID and develop new funding mechanisms focused on innovation, microenterprise development, and rapid humanitarian response, and reduce violence against women (Mungcal, 2012. In addition, this policy would focus on reduction of global poverty, accelerated economic growth, agricultural innovation, advancement in health, combating diseases, global education strategy, gender equality, assistance to persons that have been affected by conflict or disaster, and monitoring/investing towards sustaining upward success and control of financing through government regulations (HR, 2012. ) Thus, they create a more specific rational belief to solve foreign issues utilizing our government system to regulate. When observing the implementers of the USAID they have nearly 2,000 experienced employees (USAID, 2013. Other proposals by liberals represented by the Green Party express international solidarity maintaining peace and security through a global green deal. This particular deal will concentrate finances on universal education, food, sanitation and purified water, health care, and family services for every person on Earth. This particular proposal â€Å"Fund Global Basic Human Needs† would gain funding by retiring the military from our economy and closing all overseas military bases In addition, eliminate the CIA, NSA, and all other covert Warfare in order to reallocate funding towards aid. Lastly, this platform would eliminate debt from poverty stricken countries thus creating emphasizing their egalitarian beliefs (GPP, 2000. ) Another foreign aid announced by President Barack Obama is the Global Health Initiative that would continue to develop from the pre-existing program by President Bush, President’s Emergency Plan for Aids Relief. This continued improving program will expand to other countries instead of only Africa, it would encourage prevention, care, and treatment while strengthening government partnership and invest in research internationally to maximize outcomes (UNAIDS, 2009. In addition, they seek to reduce higher statistics of disease contraction and mortality of women and children while strengthening global health partnerships. Based upon the ideological spectrum of liberal beliefs, through their core value of rationalism they exhibit faith in human reason to solve complex problems that cause poverty in third world countries. By creating regulatio ns, education about health and finances, and encouraging progress towards mutual goals through the Global Partnership Act of 2012, liberals believe that underprivileged countries will progressively develop towards sustainability based upon human rationale. As an egalitarian belief, liberals from the Green Party believe and promote human equality by their party platform of universal health care for every person on the planet which indicates equal treatment by means of education, health, and services. They promote internationalism by means of equal treatments towards other countries and foreign aid reform of the PEPFAR towards all countries instead of the countries within the African continent. Moreover, liberals seek change as soon as possible which led to the speedy approval of PEPFAR and Africa’s request for assistance in regards to immediate medical attention and assistance. Therefore, the liberals utilize the government as a strong feature to decide and guide towards our faith in solving socioeconomic problems internationally while attempting to cultivate foreign governments with their ideology. Lastly, they value their belief of individual liberties and encourage the development of foreign countries so that their citizens will be treated fairly and just by their government. When approaching foreign aid as a contemporary American conservative, they utilize the term foreign policy as opposed to aid as a reference of government action rather than a community decision. They seem to favor foreign policy by means of military and health care; however, the primary goal is to develop relationships with foreign countries to prevent conflicts. Although they discuss creating trade agreements and forming partnerships, they seem to be strategizing in terms of security and protection for America. In regards to funding, conservatives don’t seem to favor the idea of increasing tax spending towards foreign aid and seek to reform due to their subjective views on failed results. Therefore, they view investment towards a flawed foreign policy will lead to more spending in military forces to protect America from unstable countries. Moreover, I feel that conservatives have a strong belief in nationalism and would want to share this system by encouraging other undeveloped countries to conform to our system. As a conservative perspective towards foreign aid, our government allocates tax payers funding towards the Millennium Challenge Corporation or MCC which would utilize a procedural form of selecting certain countries by means of performance while being evaluated by a board and executed by 300 employees (MCC, 2013. The criteria would be based upon whether or not they can compete with other countries in regards to Gross National Income of low or middle class sustaining, improving their quality and performance as a country, or graduating with a year If there are no signs of improvement or potential, they would not be eligible for the next year and be left to thei r own elements. The form of criteria emphasizes a value of elitism on the competitive national level. Basically, if a certain country is not deemed successful due to lack of intellect, strength of its citizens, or ability to overcome poverty then we decline assistance. In another perspective, we can view our system of criteria and success based on the survival of the fittest which is a value of inequality. In addition, the goals of the MCC are to leave the responsibility of the foreign government to facilitate their own success towards growth in health and agriculture, create partnerships, and property rights (MCC 2013. ) We basically leave their government in the faith of the invisible hand to guide their success rather than micro managing their success by means of government. Lastly we encourage property and individual right through the investment policy to reduce poverty. As discussed by James Roberts a researcher for International Trade and Economics, â€Å"MCC's selectivity and associated seal of approval creates powerful incentives for developing countries to uphold democratic and free-market principles, invest responsibly in their citizens, and transition their economies from developing to emerging markets† (Roberts, 2013. ) He encourages a core value of faith in non-human institutions by means of a free market rather than government controlled. In addition, the MCC encourages national accountability towards developing democratic reform and trade policies thus validating their values within nationalism. In a recent proposed foreign aid budget, Josh Riggin reports, â€Å"The long-term budget announced on Tuesday by House Budget Chairman Paul Ryan would cut the budget for international affairs and foreign assistance by 29 percent in 2012 and 44 percent by 2016 while increasing the defense budget by 14 percent over the same timeframe† (Rogin, 2011. Basically, he would be increasing the current spending bill on defense of 22 billion to 583 billion for national defense and security while decreasing national affairs from 37 billion to 22 billion. This validates the characteristic of the need to increase spending on defense or authority and stability with conservatives. Moreover, the decrease in foreign aid would be left at the hands of faith in non-human institutions. In a report by U. S. World News, Evan Moore and Patrick Christy claim â€Å"Aid is hard power. It is a weapon the United States uses to strengthen allies [and partners] and, thus, ourselves. (Moore & Christy, 2013. ) In this statement, they value a sense of authority, stability, and order in regards to security with military. However, due to sequestration to cut foreign aid, conservatives believe that it will avoid assistance towards promoting national security and create instability in weak states as well as on a global level. Basically, foreign aid directed towards developing a country will hinder strategic investment with allies in military which is the primary goal. As a statement towards nationalism, Gary Connor publisher of Palestine. Herald-Press, he claims that the U. S spends billions of tax payers’ money every year on foreign aid while we continue to be underfunded on a national level primarily with disaster relief, education, and border security (Connor, 2013. ) His conservative belief opposes internationalism while focusing on America as the priority versus developing countries that may not be contributing to our society. In addition, he emphasizes a sense of elitism in the aspect of the funding that was gained by tax payers should be used towards the tax payers despite the harsh reality underdeveloped countries. As a primary characteristic of a conservative, their primary worries in regards to the foreign aid policy are the unintended consequences. As reported by Thomas Eddlem contributor to The New American publication, â€Å"US foreign aid programs often funded autocratic regimes that have committed human rights abuses and stand against democratic principles† (Eddlem, 2013. ) In other words, American funding towards foreign aid has become the financing for their government to oppress and control opposing voices. Another report claims American aid to Egypt purchases in the last 30 years towards their regime that performs torture and brutality. The challenge to foreign aid is whether or not we have implemented proper authorities to ensure foreign aid given by America’s tax payers are being utilized effectively. Due to the conservatives lack of confidence in the government’s ability to create progressive results using the tax payers money, conservatives state that â€Å"Billions of American dollars from faith-based and other charitable, academic, and humanitarian groups go to the needy overseas every year and have far better results than government ODA† (Roberts, 2013. Although conservatives may seem reluctant to push towards foreign aid, their support through religious charity groups emphasizes a faith in non-human institutions. Contemporary American moderates would approach foreign aid in a collaborative value between conservatives and liberals; however, they would primarily compromise their beliefs to coincide with the current status quo. They would probably continue keep a balance of spending to aid foreign countries by means of finances and health assistance, but to primarily remain conscious as to prevent from leaning towards focus on the government for all assistance and seeking private donations as well. In addition, they would probably continue the traditional USAID form of foreign aid and balance with the new updated approach of the MCC or to combine both of these programs. In recent alternative propositions by the Foreign Service Despatches and Periodic Reports on U. S. Foreign Policy by Dobransky, he considers multiple alternatives in the views of moderates. The first policy would be to maintain U. S. foreign aid by continuing to utilize USAID and the recent version MCC. In the perspective of Americans, both forms of aid have been approved and criticized openly by multiple parties; however, they are both still being utilized and approved by congress as the usual form of application (Dobransky, 2011. The second alternative would be to merge both programs of the USAID and MCC which would primarily cause shared mass information to the public and be able to whittle down flaws and target areas of success to increase efficacy. Moreover, there would be one organization as opposed to two leading groups that oppose each other’s’ views despite a common goal. A proposition brought on by the Green Party that would encourage a global deal to fund tow ards education, food, and other basic needs to every human on this planet by means of American tax payers. Sounds like a truly selfless proposal; however, the majority of Americans would not want to place all resources and hard earned money to the rest of the world. This would probably exhaust America’s budget and would be impossible to ensure that every single person is receiving the same exact treatment. In addition, America would not want to sacrifice closing overseas military bases which would place our country in a higher and much vulnerable state due to weak security. When evaluating the MCC policy, they emphasize a rich value in elitism by means of leaving these countries to their own device. If we are investing in these particular countries by means of our tax payer’s money, we would want to see positive results by means of guidance and American political perspective to decrease poverty and social ills rather than finance countries then leave them to figure out how to succeed. In addition, with the amount billions of dollars spent to aid other countries we can afford to increase representatives of the limited 300 employees of MCC in order to properly work side by side with invested countries. Politicians in America use Foreign Aid as a weapon to achieve what they want from other countries, but they do not really see the real problems that this help causes in poor countries, or at least they act as they do not see it. For example Foreign Aid causes major corruption and even more poverty. The governments in poor countries do not really care about the people and they are not design like the government in the United States. If we follow the history of Foreign Aid, we can see that every time we help a country, we always end up fighting that country at one point or another. Foreign Aid should be limited and the US should hold the countries that received aid accountable for how they use it. Millions of dollars are lost in fraudulent contracts and misuse by the receiving governments, we do not have a saying in how these governments can use our hard earn money. For the US government to continue having the approval of the people in foreign aid help, it needs to fix the requirements for who qualifies to receive foreign aid, and also when to use foreign aid as a tool for foreign policy.

The Pyschology of Everday Life . 2000 word portfolio consisting of the Essay

The Pyschology of Everday Life . 2000 word portfolio consisting of the following Assesment 1 - Applying psychology to ever - Essay Example In today’s material and media driven society, it has become important to have a fit and shapely body if one is to enjoy a healthy self image. Hence, currently the goal of my life is to reduce weight and to achieve a desired shape with the help of exercise and healthy diet. However, it is not as easy as it seems. After referring to different studies in the field of psychology, ayurveda and spirituality, I realized that being overweight is not just a physical problem. The tendency of overeating and accumulating fats lies in the psychological and emotional make up of a person. This means that if one has to achieve a perfect weight and a shapely body, then one has to change not only the eating habits but also the psychological aspects of the personality. Hence, to become a happier person in life, what is more important than reducing weight is to gain a healthy self image, emotional clarity and peaceful relationship with ‘self’, because one can achieve happiness only w hen one is at peace with the ‘self.’ The Root Of Problem Happiness is the most important aspect of a fulfilling life. People feel worthy and content only when they are happy with themselves. Sadly, instead of attaching happiness with the internal feelings and personality, it is related to appreciation, social success and social acceptance. Hence, people become happy only when they get appreciated and accepted by people around them. However, this leads to a major problem as it makes people depend on others for their happiness. Instead of doing things that make them happy, people start following the goals and ‘living standards’ that are set by others for them. This leads to misery and self destructive behavior pattern (Chopra, 1994, p. 42). Genuine physical beauty and emotional happiness can be achieved only when a person practices self-acceptance (Chopra, 1994, p. 42). However, self-acceptance does not come easily. The idea of ‘perfect life’ and ‘perfect body’ is shaped by the television and print media and not on the basis of self knowledge. However, it is necessary to understand that every human being is unique and hence, has a unique body and mind system (Chopra, 1994, p. 18). If a person tries to copy other people’s weight pattern or food habits, then he becomes vulnerable to losing his individuality and health. Hence, the healthier way to reduce weight is to understand the root cause of the problem and try to treat it rather than trying to reduce the weight only through exercise and diet. However, to analyze and understand the root of the problem, it is necessary to look at the problem through the psychological perspective. The problem of me being overweight is not a recent one. I have observed that this is an intermittent problem since my childhood. I have never been an obese child. However, I do have a tendency to gain weight when I go through stressful situations in life. This might be because I also tend to eat when I am tense or feel emotionally closed. This shows that it is my emotional pattern that makes me to eat unhealthy food and become overweight as I am not able to control binging on fast food. Hence, my problem is emotional based and not body based (Chopra, 2004, p.103). It has been found that for people who are emotionally dissatisfied and unhappy, ‘food’ becomes a source of satisfaction and happiness (Chopra, 2004, p.103). The habit of binging and overeating comes from the feeling of emptiness in the

Creativity a literature review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Creativity a literature review - Essay Example However, both definitions aren't accurate enough to describe the main two forms of creativity: the creative problem-solving and the role of social appraisal of judgment. So which to speak it itself is known as a multi-componential perspective. For instance, creativity that is seen from a human being is due to the interaction of the environment and the person his/herself. As an ongoing chain, even that isn't the true understanding of what creativity is. So as a couple of definitions , both Batey M. and Furnham A. believed it was the following: 1. Attributes of the inventive novel and useful to a particular social/cultural group. 2. Attributes to the person who came up with the idea of the product. 3. Attributes of the person assessing the creativity of the product and 4. Attributes of the environment including the following: source of evaluation, source of support, of resources, and the source of stimulation inspirable. The main target of how to establish the individual differences wa s in personality traits and intelligence. Testing personality has interacted a relationship of creativity and extraversion, openness to knowledge, and conscientiousness. When studying the creative intelligence, tests found weak relationship to psychometric intelligence. Convergent thinking is to come in or bring together while divert thinking is to turn aside from one course to another, to amuse. Studies have rated creativity to measures of intelligence to find that there were non-significant relationships. When you score quality aspects of creative answers, you get hypothesizes and tests that must be run multiple times and from there use different methods such as the following: FFM (Five Factor Model), IB (Ideational Behavior), and RIBS (Runco Ideational Behavior Scale

How convincing is Porters model of national competitive advantage in Essay - 15

How convincing is Porters model of national competitive advantage in explaining the characteristics and performance of the business systems of major economies - Essay Example For this reason, the model suggests that the nationhood of a homemade industry has a significant role in making the business venture achieve its advantage globally. The value of the nationhood to the industry is responsible for the development of the primary factors that enhances the support for the organizations in achieving the advantages available in the global completion (Pejko, 2014). Porter noted that there are four determinants of reaching the national competitive advantage. The four determinants, however, operate under the influence of the country of operation added with the competitive strengths of the firms. In this instance, Porter presents an argument that states that the competitive industries may take the form of unique clusters of the nation based firms (Rowe, 2009). Clusters have some correlations with the customers, technology, skills, the distribution channels and many more. The availability of these clusters will make the nations come up with business systems that also will lead to the competitive advantage and the realization of the economic success as a whole. An example, in this case, is the Japans automobile industry and the US semiconductor industry. The two industries have the linkage to the Porters diamond model in their operation that in this instance assists them in the creation of the unique business systems and the competitive advantages over other industries. Factor condition defines a nation’s position on the factors of production that is useful for competition through a given field of industry of operation such as the case of the skilled labour or infrastructure. Consequentially, the national factors enhance the provision of the pre advantages for the nation. As a result, each nation has a certain factor condition that, in this case, makes it favourable for the growth and the development of business systems and industries (Tallman, 2009). For instance,

The Boeing Aircraft Company - Managerial Economics Essay

The Boeing Aircraft Company - Managerial Economics - Essay Example Today, in order to break even, an jet aircraft manufacturing firm needs to sell 350 units of the aircraft to recover its development and production costs and thus break even. Because of such tremendous amount of fixed capital requirements, experts believe that the world can support at most only 3 manufacturers. However, as the first entrants in the industry, both Boeing and Airbus get a lock on the economies of scale and discouraged subsequent entry of other competitors. Back in the 1990s it was estimated that the world demand would be something in the scale of 1500 aircraft of the 300-seater type over a period of 10 years from 1995 to 2005, so that if the firm had to sell 50 aircraft average per year or 500 over this period just to obtain a reasonable return on its investment. At the beginning, Boeing had to step in the shoes de Havilland Comet in the 1950s, when that aircraft company had frequent accidents. Boeing took over and compiled a good safety record although it was not the first entrant in the industry. Boeing built on its advantages and obtained US government support for its research and development program. Boeing, located in Washington, U.S.A., is the worlds largest manufacturer of commercial jet aircraft, and today controls nearly two-thirds of the worlds market, down from its former positional advantage of a 2:1 dominance.. It is recalled that as part of a strategic industrial strategy, the US government provided substantial research and development grants to Boeing in its early years, specifically in the 1950s and the 1960s, to help the domestic firm compete in the emerging market for jet passenger planes in Boeings favor. After recently merging with McDonnell-Douglas the company has diversified more intensively its production of aircrafts and related products for military use. The government has no longer found it necessary to provide significant

Intranship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Intranship - Essay Example This included developing competence in collecting, recording, categorizing and analyzing an organization’s financial information for communication to relevant stakeholders to aid informed ‘decision-making’. I completed my objective through active involvement in the organization’s accounting department where I assisted in making journal entries, transferring the information into ledger accounts, preparing financial statements, and analyzing the organization’s financial position. I also achieved my objective by being disciplined to the accounting department and allowing myself to be professionally influenced by the employees (Kumar, p. 69- 72). I developed a variety of skills for accountancy. I gained proficiency in completing books of accounts, preparing financial statements and communication skills. I also developed positive interpersonal relationship traits as facilitated by the organization ethical culture that is entrenched in internal code of ethics provisions (Kumar, p. 69- 72). The organization derived many benefits from the pursuit of my objective. It received additional workforce that relieved some of its accountants of some duties. As a result, the relieved personnel specialized in analytical review of the organization’s performance for efficiency (Kumar, p. 69- 72). My objective was to gain expertise in application of marketing techniques for a ‘high-level’ competence. This included developing competence in â€Å"product, place, price, and promotion† aspects and the ability to manage environmental factors such as â€Å"political and legal, economic, cultural, social and natural environment† (McKinlay and O’Connor, p. 29). I similarly completed my objective through active involvement in the organization marketing activities by working closely with marketing argents by attending to their needs and accompanying them in their assignments. My level of commitment to and dependence on

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 206

Assignment Example It can also track the non-performing segments and provide a platform from which the group can decide whether or not to clear with some departments. Using Stern Stewart’s lists of effective management with regards to maximizing on the components of EVA, it is possible to see just how appropriate capital employed serves the business. The Capital Light strategy seeks to make available larger sums of capital all in the name of taking advantage of the way in which potential investors will hold the fort in case of an expected payday. EVA can be put to task with regards to its effectiveness in picking out the non-performing segments or investments. As the instigator of EVA, Stern Stewart and Co., enjoy a significant share in the market and a healthy result for their years of service. The current levels of compensation seem excessive especially when put into perspective regarding profit and loss. The example of Freddie Mac, Fannie Mae shows just how far the rot has spread with the company now operating at a loss in the name of maintaining staff with major skills. It becomes a major burden ensuring that the objectives of the shareholders are satisfied. The compensation levels however, should come into play even before a CEO’s term ends. The payment will make a significant impact on whether or not the company continues in the set pathway. The way in which a CEO drives forward his/her agenda is mainly dependent on the manner of their economic contribution (Fortune, n.d). An imbalanced and overpaid leader will impact negatively on morale and lead to loss of profit levels. It is especially true in the event of an economic downturn. The question of giving raises and bonuses to the employees of the federal and state governments during poor economic performances desires an answer. These governments have the power within them to improve living standards for

Professional Services Firms Ideal Location and Building Layout Assignment

Professional Services Firms Ideal Location and Building Layout - Assignment Example Examples of professional services firms include accountants, architects, attorneys, brokerage firms, software consultants, business consultants, and engineering design consultants etc. The similarity between the above-stated professionals is that that the jobs which are done by these individuals cannot be done by the individuals or the businesses on their own. For example, a business setup cannot have a software consultant of its own which is certainly needed by the business set up for software development. Such capabilities and technical knowledge are not expected to be possessed by any individual or employee of business so these capabilities have to be acquired by hiring the services of professional services firms. The location decision for a professional services firm depends on the following factors: - Services were already provided in the vicinity. - Employment at the site. - The area is available. - Other businesses already present at the site. - The availability of the required workforce in the locality. - The rent of the site and the financial matters related to the site allocation. - The extent of customer interaction with the firms already working at the site. - Location (downtown, near downtown, elsewhere in the city, suburban or rural). - Previous history of similar kind of businesses working in the area. - The financial considerations regarding construction in the locality if a permanent office has to be established. - Accessibility for the customers.   - The traffic control, environmental pollution and noise pollution levels in the area.

The Support For Social And Political Reform In The 1960s. Watergate Essay

The Support For Social And Political Reform In The 1960s. Watergate political scandal - Essay Example There were enormous civil rights struggles, militant wages struggles in virtually every sector of the economy and urban riots. So why did all of this decline in the 1970's One of the reasons for this decline was that the 1970's was a time of the rise of the Conservative Right as a reaction to the permissiveness of the counter-culture in the 1960's which dismissed "family values", traditional religious values and had a widespread distrust in the government, thus creating a counter reaction to that culture. Things were further complicated by America's declining economic condition world wide and the oil shock of 1973-74.The US saw the deepest recession since the 1930s.At this time President Nixon also announced the closure of the "Golden Window" which was a system of managed exchange rates which had far reaching political and economic consequences for American politics. The American working class did continue much of its militancy which was characteristic of the 1960's strikes. There were bitter strikes throughout the 1970s by workers and this crisis peaked during the 111-day nationwide coal miners' strike of 1977-78.These workers sought to reinforce the whole series of social reforms about workers made by Roosevelt's New Deal. Often dubbed as concessions wrenched by the working class from the American ruling class, these were no longer feasible for the economically stagnating position of the US ruling elite and there was a continuous struggle to end these reforms. _______________________________________________________________ DQ2.Why was Watergate a political scandal What were the immediate and long-term consequences of the Watergate investigation The term Watergate has become synonymous with corruption and conspiracy after it was used to cover the plethoric mass of political scandals between 1972 and 1974. Watergate is actually the name of a Hotel in Washington D.C which also accommodates offices. On June 17, 1972 the office of the Democratic National Committee (DNC) was burgled and the eventual concealment of this burglary caused the political downfall of President Richard Nixon who ultimately resigned on 8 August 1974. In 1972 Five men belonging to the Plumbers group broke in and tapped the phones of DNC .These men were working secretly with the Nixon administration and were trying to stop and discredit on Daniel Ellsberg who had leaked the Vietnam war scandal. The only reason this burglary was revealed was because of a vigilant security guard. The scandal arose when it turned out that all of the so called burglars were being funded by the Committee to Re-Elect the President (C.R.E.E.P.). Although Nixon won the next presidential election the repercussions of the scandal were far reaching as the so called burglars went to jail. Many of the White House staff resigned as the link between the burglary and the administration became obvious. In 1973 there was a Senate investigation and Nixon admitted to having the tapped oval office conversations and pleaded Executive Privilege as an excuse not to hand the tapes over. After the famous "Saturday Night Massacre' in October 1973 as he tried firing the people he feared would tell on him he was in deeper trouble as his continued refusal caused him to be named un-indicted co-conspirator in the obstruction of justice over the Watergate matter. Nixon continued to claim Executive Privilege in his refusals to hand the materials over. The Supreme Court unanimously rejected his contention and he was ordered to hand over the tapes. At his refusal the House of

Human Resource Management Essay Example for Free

Human Resource Management Essay I. Introduction The purpose of this paper is to analyse the characteristics of the Pre-WW II Japanese corporate management from the perspective of the human resource development. The essential framework of the Japanese-style human resource management before WW II constituted differentiated employment by a few ranks; then, different duties and treatments followed accordingly. The initial ranks were determined by the level i.e. social recognition and overall academic achievement of new employees’ schools. Thus, the approach was called â€Å"an educational class system†. The graduates of either universities or polytechnics were hired as high-ranking employees with monthly payment, whilst the graduates of technical or commercial schools which were on a level with secondary education filled the posts of employee in semi-staff condition. Their wages were paid either monthly or daily. In the case of workmen with basic education at shop floors, the payment was only made daily. The gap of prestige and remuneration amongst the different ranks was distinctive 1 . This noticeable correlation between educational background and ex officio standing was developed within a group of large corporations from the beginning of the 20th century. Afterwards, during the 1920s and 30s, it became common in large-scale firms. It has been agreed that, as a key element of corporate employment, the custom of periodically employing new graduates of universities and other educational institutions characterised the growth of the Japanese internal labour market 2 . There has been a general viewpoint that this â€Å"educational class system† was abolished by the Japanese policy of democratisation after WW II; nonetheless, my study points out a new fact that a couple of misapprehension exists there. The first misconception is that it was rather exceptional for a new employee with comparatively weak educational background to be promoted to a prestigious post despite his long commitment and contribution to his firm 3 . The second is that any potential disaccord between the highly ranked and compensated group of university graduates and the lower with basic education was dealt with by the former alongside the unique Japanese code of group behaviour. Especially, the superior engineers with university education were known to take a serious view of operatives’ works at shop floor more than assignments at laboratories; and this attitude was positively appraised in the past studies and discussed as a key success factor 4 . Yet, the two standpoints seem invalid. The statements of the management and leading engineers of the period prove that the university graduates of engineering did not possess adequate knowledge for production operation. Besides, they did not show any preference to practices at shop floor and instead complained a lot about technical operations at workshops. The Japanese firms necessitated both university-educated engineers with theoretical knowledge and shop floor technicians with operational understanding, when they developed new products on the basis of imported western technologies. My research 5 has investigated the Japanese human resource management of pre-war Japanese corporations, and it presents that the technicians were mostly the graduates of technical schools which were on a level with secondary education and, even in some cases, those with only  elementary education. They were, at the beginning, hired as a junior group of workforce i.e. workmen or employee in semi-staff condition, However, got promoted later to the higher ranks in accordance with their commitment to work and internal training programmes, and consequent appraisals of their technical capability. The Japanese firms of the period required those human resources to improve technological capacity, and facilitated the development by providing them with incentives of promotion to prestigious posts. II. Higher Technical Education and Appraisal of University-graduated Engineers Throughout the historical context of adopting western industrial technologies, Japan experienced the early disintegration of apprentice system and the swift institutional development of technical educations even before the full-scale industrialisation. Henry Dyer, a graduate of Glasgow University, attempted to integrate theoretical and technical educations, and  this resulted in the establishment of a symbolic institution of engineering in 1873, Kobu Daigakko, which was the precursor of the Engineering Department of Tokyo University. Dyer’s ideology of the combined education of technology gained high reputation of â€Å"deserving international attention†, and his approach was recognised to bring forth the university-educated Japanese engineers’ common ethos of taking operations at shop floor seriously 6 . Nevertheless, it is worth noting that a considerable number of managers, engineers, technician, and workmen brought up harsh criticism about the effectuality of the university-level technical education as well as the overall capability of university graduates. Oh’uchi Ai-Sichi, managing director of Mitsubishi Electric and an ex rear admiral of technology of the Japanese Imperial Navy, advised his men in 1938 that they should ease up on the â€Å"yet unprofessional† new recruits from universities and stop despising the â€Å"rookies of practical engineering at real workshops† since the university programmes were generally concerned more with highbrow engineering theories 7 . A few causes of the university graduates’ insufficient practical knowledge and incapacity of directing workshop technicians and workmen were discussed: firstly, the drawback of university programmes was derived from the overstress upon note takings at lectures instead of development of the ability of thinking and reading; secondly, university students of engineering tended to dislike practical trainings; and furthermore, the content of the university programmes lacked technical trainings necessary for the actual operations at shop floors 9 . Concerning the sustainable technological development, Japanese corporations began to necessitate a new group of workforce that could fill the social and professional gap between â€Å"highbrow theoreticians† from universities and â€Å"practitioners† with relatively insufficient theoretical understandings. The Japanese firms then obtained the essential human resources from their own internal training programmes as well as personnel administration. The following section will introduce the author’s research on the managerial endeavour in the shipbuilding sector, which led the noticeable growth of the Japanese heavy industry. III. Internal Development of Human Resources and Professional Promotion In the case of the shipbuilding industry, this research analyses the human  resources development and personnel administration of the naval arsenal and the Nagasaki dockyard of Mitsubishi Shipbuilding Company. The following three points deserve our attention. Firstly, along with the development of the modern educational institution, they recruited university or polytechnic graduates for the prestigious post of administration, but this was not the only approach of employment; another method of personnel was to train talented workshop technicians and workmen internally and then promote them to the superior positions. Secondly, it is worth denoting that the technological underdevelopment facilitated the industry to build up the personnel policy. Then, lastly, due to the industrial underdevelopment, the two organisations transferred newly recruited assistant engineers from university or polytechnic to workshops for a while during the initial period of their career development: the intention of this programme was to let them experience the technical practices. The three features are well illuminated in the following historical descriptions. The naval arsenal in its early phase of 1870 benchmarked a French model of technical school to set up its own, and commenced development of two kinds of human resources: superior technical staffs with education of professional apprehension of theories (similar to the French naval technical officers) and skilled chargehands at shop floors with basic theoretical education. In tandem with the founding of modern technical schools in Japan, only university graduates were recruited for the superior posts of engineering from 1882, and the corporate training programmes for professional engineers was abolished. As presented in Table 2, the rate of university graduates and polytechnic graduates within the newly recruited junior engineers during the 1920s reached approximately 50 percent. In the first half of the same period, elementary school graduates covered 20 to 30 percent of the population; then in the second half, the ratio was replaced by the graduates of corporate technical schools. The latter group were also elementary school graduates; thus, this implies that they were employed, at the beginning, as wage earners right after their graduation. They acquired technical knowledge from workshop practices, and then learned basic theories through the corporate school: therefore, the personnel administration of hiring those internally developed labourers for the junior posts continued. In addition, and surprisingly, their path of career development was extended to the positions of superior engineers. Table 3 presents that only 60 percent of the total population of the upper-class engineers was covered by university and polytechnic graduates whereas the graduates of corporate school occupied nearly 20 percent during the 1920s. The development of the personnel system of promoting a part of talented workmen and workshop technicians to engineering staffs was realised by the fact that the skilled workmen and technicians with sufficient operational knowledge and experience at shop floors played a significant role in the ship design of the time. The blueprints described, at most, ship concepts and hull structures; no information regarding how to build them was provided. Hence, engineering staffs with conceptual understanding of the blueprints, technical capability of choosing proper materials, and managerial experience of directing dockyard workmen and technicians were demanded, and the internally trained workforce from shop floor turned out to be the most capable 11 . The unique scheme of promotion was therefore developed to increase their working incentive. In contrast, the role of superior engineers with university or polytechnic  education was limited to the managerial posts of each sector and preparation of the blueprints of basic design. It was therefore inevitable to let them have workshop experiences. The largest private industrial leader, Mitsubishi Shipbuilding Company’s Nagasaki dockyard, was not an exception. The employment of university or polytechnic graduates started in 1890, and the recruitment from university increased from the beginning of the 20th century. In 1911, the corporate policy of employing only university graduates for the superior posts was forged. Nonetheless, owing to the identical context of the naval arsenal, the internally educated skilled workforce with affluent shop floor experiences and technical knowledge was constantly on demand. In consequence, the company decided to promote staffs without university education to the superior posts in engineering as well 12 . Table 5 indicates that, from 1916 to 1926, nearly a half of the new superior technical staffs were the recruitment of workshop technicians without any kind of high education. Some of the new staffs were the graduates of Mitsubishi Kogyo Yobi Gakko (preparatory school of engineering), which was established in 1899 to train operatives for blueprint reading; at least 37 men were included, and their educational background was elementary school only 13 . Just like the naval arsenal’s personnel scheme, Mitsubishi also developed a programme of transferring superior engineers with university education to  the post of apprenticeship at workshops to let them obtain live knowledge and experience. In 1923, the period of apprenticeship was fixed as a half a year, then, extended to a year in 1927 14 . IV. Concluding Remarks In the advance of the Japanese heavy industry, two sorts of technical talents were required: a group of workforce for adopting the western technologies, and the other group of skilled engineers, who could direct workmen and workshop technicians in operation and understand engineering theories as well. The former was supplied by university graduates alongside the establishment of higher education in Japan; then, the latter was grown by both the corporate training programmes for talented workmenworkshop technicians (with relatively weak educational background) and the personnel scheme of promoting them to superior posts. The Japanese firms tried out a plan of fully utilising their potentials by promoting them to the most prestigious position of workman i.e. chargehand, but the attempt was unsuccessful since chargehands did know their unsatisfactory social status and even tried to leave the post of chargehand, if possible. It was thus necessary to firstly develop an incentive system of promotion, based upon corporate training programmes, and then integrate it into â€Å"the educational class system†. The personnel ways and means enabled management of any kind of potential disaccord or communicational blockade between superior staffs (with university-level education) and workmen and workshop technicians; and the personnel scheme facilitated the efficient internalisation of the imported technologies at shop floors.

Art Forms in Advertising: The Beijing Olympics

Art Forms in Advertising: The Beijing Olympics While advertising has mass appeal, we may argue that with the proliferation of new media, art is now more recycled than ever and not the exclusive behest of individuals fortunate enough to travel to the great museums and art galleries of the world where such canonical and benchmark art works reside.- art works can be appreciated whether they reside at The Louvre and never leave their hallowed home, or if they are encapsulated within a series of television commercials. In the industrial world it has been noted that â€Å"much of the creativity goes into advertising which probably serves more to divide than unite. The communities that share synthesizing symbols now are network communities that crosscut geographic settlements.†[35] The Beijing Olympic opening and closing ceremonies certainly extend the limits of art forms, art exposure and the skill of absolute precision, a long standing feature of high art whether visual or performance based, is extenuated by virtue of the latest technological wizardry, the unprecedented global telecasts and the voluminous populations who participated in the enactment of the such art works, all of which, undoubtedly, acted as a mega advertisement for Chinese ancient culture and modernisation. According to Hatcher et. al. â€Å"as to the functions of art, there is much to be learned. In the industrial world much of the creativity goes into advertising which probably serves more to divide than unite. The communities that share synthesizing symbols now are network communities that crosscut geographic settlements. But art is being used in many places as a form of communication in the negotiations as to the nature of changes† [36] While advertising has mass appeal, we may argue that with the proliferation of new media, art is now more recycled than ever and not the exclusive behest of individuals fortunate enough to travel to the great museums and art galleries of the world where such canonical and benchmark art works reside.- art works can be appreciated whether they reside at The Louvre and never leave their hallowed home, or if they are encapsulated within a series of television commercials. As Gibbons noted, while advertising normally occupies a lower status than art, art is usually less accessible, unless of course advertising has appropriated it within culturally familiar formats. The Beijing Olympic opening and closing ceremonies certainly extend the limits of art forms, art exposure and the skill of absolute precision, a long standing feature of high art whether visual or performing, is extenuated by virtue of the latest technological wizardry, the unprecedented global telecasts and the voluminous populations who participated in the enactment of the such art works, all of which, undoubtedly, acted as a mega advertisement for Chinese ancient culture and modernisation. References Baxter, Lynda Art Terms and Definitions, retrieved November 15, 2008 from http://www.artincanada.com/arttalk/arttermsanddefinitions.html 2000 Gibbons, J. Art and advertising. New York : Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. Gunz, Joel. Art vs. Advertising, An Epic Battle between Art Dweebs and Advertising Grunts, retrieved November 15, 2008 from http://joelgunz.blogspot.com/2006/06/art-vs-advertising-epic-battle-between.html 2006. Harms, John and Kellner, Douglas. Toward a Critical Theory of Advertising, retrieved November 15, 2008 from http://www.uta.edu/huma/illuminations/kell6.htm n.d. Footnotes [35]  Hatcher, Bergin and Garvey 1999, 249-250 [36] Hatcher, Bergin and Garvey 1999, 249-250

Concepts in Communication

Concepts in Communication Application Assignment Section One: The Artifact My artifact of choice, which Im going to be utilizing to connect course terminology with external content herein, is the book Doctor Sleep, by Stephen King. The novel serves as a sequel to the classic horror story The Shining, and is set some thirty years in the future. At the outset of the plot, our primary protagonist, Dan Torrance, has hit rock bottom with his alcoholism (a hereditary reenactment of his own fathers sins) and moves to a quaint New English village following a conflict of morality he has inside of a womans apartment one morning. Here, he obtains seasonal work, joins a chapter of Alcoholics Anonymous, and later, establishes a permanent position at a local hospice. With the aid of his telepathic ability known as the shining, and a community cat with an ESP-like awareness, Dan becomes notoriously known as Doctor Sleep amongst the residents for his uncanny ability to comfort the dying, and provide them with some foresight into the journey beyond life. During this time, a young girl named Abra with a similar talent to Dans (though far more powerful) begins to reach out to him via telepathically encoding messages on a chalkboard inside of his private quarters at the hospice. Simultaneously, revelations are beginning to occur; correlating Abras unusual ability to a series of unexplainable events happening around her parents home. Suddenly, the oddities cease, and for many years, tranquil bliss ensues. Then, one day, Abra abruptly uses her talent in an attempt to enlist Dans assistance after witnessing a vision of a young boy being murdered by an organization known as the True Knot. The True Knot is essentially a semi-immortal band of RV travelers who have endured throughout the centuries by feeding on the essence of steam, which they siphon from the bodies of murdered children possessing the shining. Led by the diabolical Rose the Hat, the True Knot become aware of Abras existence and power by administering a reverse procedure. After becoming sick fro m a disease transmitted through the dead boy, the True Knot become adamant on capturing and killing Abra, and channeling her power as a means to sustain their continued survival. Following an in person discussion with the girl, Dan agrees to help, and confronts Abras father and family practitioner; who are then forced to come to terms with the nature of her talent. The men form a plot to ambush Roses henchmen, who are currently en-route to kidnap Abra. Upon successfully thwarting the agenda of the True Knot, it becomes apparent to the protagonists that Rose will relentlessly exhaust all available resources to avenge her fallen comrades and murder Abra. With a heightened sense of urgency, Dan formulates another plan, and makes a final pilgrimage to Colorado (ironically the exact location of the decimated Overlook Hotel from his childhood) with a scheme to put an end to the remains of the True Knot once and for all. At the conclusion of the story, Dan advantageously uses the mental co nnection between himself and Abra to defeat Rose and her remaining cohorts in a psychic battle; drawing upon the combined power of deceased ghosts and the girl, in conjunction with his own. Furthermore, Dan is ultimately able to silence the demons of his past, and establish an ongoing relationship with Abras family, whom he discovers is related by blood during the third act of the story. Section Two: Concepts in Communication Culture Gender In the second chapter of Kory Floyds textbook Interpersonal Communication: Third Edition, were presented with the ideal of in-groups and out-groups the ability to personally identify with others in contrast to those who we find dissimilar (35). Dissecting the concept further, it becomes evident that a portion of each individual culture (group) relies on the use of communication codes, which deepen their level of diversification from other groups by utilizing unique phrases and gestures to establish meaning. Jargon, which is a language used by members of a particular group that may appear nonsensical to those outside of it, (48) is one such format of said phrases. Communication and the Self Meandering onward through Floyd, we come across discussions regarding self-concept -ÂÂ   the set of stable ideas about who you are that compose your identity, (71) and specifically, the Johari Window; a model of scaling which aspects of your personality youre aware of versus which aspects remain a mystery to either yourself or others (72). Additionally, there are many factors that affect self-concept over time, and how we believe were being perceived by those around us dictates our sense of reflected appraisal. The notion is that we basically mirror the messages cast onto us when analyzing our value and self-worth as humans. Intrinsic processing aside, we also have tendencies to project our desired image onto others to create a sort of managed impression. This is commonly done to instill competence, flattery, and many other elements in an interaction. Interpersonal Perception In the midst of the fourth chapter in our class textbook, an illustration is given to the term egocentricity, by comparing the inability to take another persons perspective to the ignorance of toddler behavior patterns (120). Arguably of more prominence, however, is acknowledging the fact that some people consciously partake in this mindset in attempts to avoid uncertainty and, perhaps, even justify questionable actions. As an intelligent species, we humans constantly strive to make sense of whats going on around us. Unfortunately, making these inferences often results in logical fallacies in our interpretations. One potential way these errors are exposed is through overly attributing, or targeting a specific characteristic of a person in order to explain an array of observed mannerisms (129). Concerning Language A vast topic in itself, language is used every day for many purposes. From the persuasive aspect, the strategy of activating the listeners emotions by inducing pathos is a popular appeal to alter the manner in which they would typically respond to a given argument (152). On the other hand, words can also be used as weapons, and demoralize the recipient by means of contextual vulgar and obscenities (163): collectively referred to as profanity. The Nonverbal Category Floyd highlights ten separate channels in which our senses contribute to our ability to communicate without speaking. Chief among these is kinesics and proxemics the study of movement and personal boundaries, respectively (192,199). In society, its fairly commonplace to witness displays of affection (such as hugging) between individuals to convey emotion. Likewise, a personal bubble is a method of describing proximity preferences, derived from the politically correct latter term, and used frequently throughout Western countries to gauge the space and comfort relationship of an interaction. On the topic of sensory language; customary, or ritualistic touches, also come into play when conducting an activity tied to a traditional or repetitious nature (197). Section Three: Connecting My Chosen Concepts to My Artifact In Doctor Sleep, the True Knot exemplifies an in-group cultural bias consistently. They do this by coining the term rubes when referring to the majority of mankind who dont share their exotic traits and collectivistic religion. These references are generally accompanied by disdainful remarks, making my claim even more apparent. The cult also places a heavy emphasis on the use of jargon while performing their ritualistic ceremonies of sacrifice and conversion throughout the novel. We witness this in passages where ancient snippets of dialogue are recited, such as sabbatha hanti, lodsam hanti, and cahanna risone hanti. Great examples of self-concept are recurrently depicted in the character of Dan Torrance. Early on, he confides in a mentor of the AA program, voicing his thoughts of self-loathing and helplessness, while enveloping the Johari Window by refraining from disclosing information about the shining, for fear of instigating a bizarre reaction. He makes a solid effort to vindica te his past transgression by selling himself in a job interview, and project an image. Meanwhile, Abra carries the weight of reflected appraisal by attempting to suppress her powers for the benefit of her parents peace of mind. In the skirmish with the True Knot, Dans followers demonstrate egocentricity while speaking with a wounded woman named Andi; incredulous to how anyone could kill children, despite the necessity it imposes for the continued survival of the cult members. As Abra communicates with Dan secretly, here parents continuously over attribute her obscurity to being a female teenager. As the book begins to spiral toward the finale, Rose convinces one of her assistants to assume the role of an assassin, and hide in a storage shed overlooking the battlefield as a fail-safe method to assure victory. She accomplishes this by appealing to the womans pathos, and taking advantage of her grief stricken state following the death of a loved one. Profanity increases as the story re aches its climax, predominantly when the True Knot adopts the name bitch-girl when referencing to Abra, and all the frustration shes caused them. Finally, it should come as no surprise that a novel inspired by telepathy is rich with nonverbal communication. Numerous examples are found during the chalkboard writing scenes, where Abra signs off her messages with smiley faced emoticons, as well as turn-taking styles of shooting telepathic pictures back and forth between herself and Dan. Theres a chapter that influences the importance of proxemics when Abra and Dan meet outside of a public library for the first time. Not wanting to come off predatorily to bystanders, a certain level of caution is executed by Dan due to the age and gender differences of the characters. Doctor Sleep has a plethora of ritualistic touches. The True Knot grew stronger when they were united, so carrying out many of their duties while holding hands was customary. Abra also personified this term on several occa sions when she was required to hold objects in order to obtain clues to transpired events using her abilities. Works Cited Floyd, Kory. Interpersonal Communication 3rd ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education, 2016. Print. King, Stephen. Doctor Sleep. New York: Pocket, 2013. Print.

Macbeth - How Fate Disappointed Essay -- Macbeth Destiny Fate Free Wi

How Fate Disappointed in Macbeth      Ã‚   How forceful was fate in the venerable Shakespearean tragedy Macbeth? Did it deprive either of the Macbeths of their ability to choose? This essay intends to answer these and other fate-related questions.    In his critical volume, Macbeth: a Guide to the Play, H. R. Coursen explains the concept of Fate within the play:    Macbeth's tragedy is not that he decides to kill Duncan but that he cannot become independent. Even if a weaker agency than God, he would be his own, himself alone. But he cannot fight free of his implication in the way things are any more than Lady Macbeth can free herself of its embeddedness in her. The world and all within it must be of a piece if their particular version of destiny is to be acted out. Fate cannot "come . . . into the lyst." Fate is not an option except as it - like "Chance" - is allied with God, a category properly defined as the will of God. (56)    Macbeth: "If Chance would have me king, why, Chance may crown me without my stir." A.C. Bradley in Shakespearean Tragedy references Fate in the play to the Witches' prophecies:    The words of the witches are fatal to the hero only because there is in him something which leaps into light at the sound of them; but they are at the same time the witness of forces which never cease to work in the world around him, and, on the instant of his surrender to them, entangle him inextricably in the web of Fate. (320)    Blanche Coles states in Shakespeare's Four Giants the place of Fate in Macbeth's life:    Then, like a cog slipping naturally into its own notch, his thoughts turn to the Witches and their prophecy, and he concludes that he has defiled his mind for the... ...in Books, 1991.    Coles, Blanche. Shakespeare's Four Giants. Rindge, NH: Richard R. Smith Publisher, Inc., 1957.    Coursen, H. R. Macbeth: a Guide to the Play. Westport, CN: Greenwood Press, 1997.    Frye, Northrop. Fools of Time: Studies in Shakespearean Tragedy. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1967.    Knights, L.C. "Macbeth." Shakespeare: The Tragedies. A Collectiion of Critical Essays. Alfred Harbage, ed. Englewwod Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964.    Mack, Maynard. Everybody's Shakespeare: Reflections Chiefly on the Tragedies. Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 1993.    Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Macbeth. http://chemicool.com/Shakespeare/macbeth/full.html, no lin.    Wilson, H. S. On the Design of Shakespearean Tragedy. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1957.   

Essay --

â€Å"Depression is a prison where you are both the suffering prisoner and the cruel jailer.† -Dorthy Rowe. The Great Depression was a hard and sad time for everyone around the 1930s. When President Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected as president, his campaign said, â€Å"Happy Days Are Here Again†. He was very hopeful, that in the early part of President Roosevelt’s campaign he instituted the New Deal to help America get back on its feet. The New Deal had two phases: phase one and phase two. President Roosevelt established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, the National Industrial Recovery Act, the Social Security Act, and the Fair Labor Standards Act. President Roosevelt established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), it was established in 1933 to prevent the same losses during the Great Depression when banks became bankrupt and they couldn’t give money back to the people. The FDIC provided up to $250,000 in bank deposits. These bank deposits covered for national banks, state banks that is in the Federal Reserve System, and other qualified banks. In 2007, the FDIC took... Essay -- â€Å"Depression is a prison where you are both the suffering prisoner and the cruel jailer.† -Dorthy Rowe. The Great Depression was a hard and sad time for everyone around the 1930s. When President Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected as president, his campaign said, â€Å"Happy Days Are Here Again†. He was very hopeful, that in the early part of President Roosevelt’s campaign he instituted the New Deal to help America get back on its feet. The New Deal had two phases: phase one and phase two. President Roosevelt established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, the National Industrial Recovery Act, the Social Security Act, and the Fair Labor Standards Act. President Roosevelt established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), it was established in 1933 to prevent the same losses during the Great Depression when banks became bankrupt and they couldn’t give money back to the people. The FDIC provided up to $250,000 in bank deposits. These bank deposits covered for national banks, state banks that is in the Federal Reserve System, and other qualified banks. In 2007, the FDIC took...

The Differences Between Men and Women Essay -- essays research papers

For countless generations it has been a mystery, almost creditable for extensive research and investigation, why men and women are viewed as complete opposites. Men and women have never and will never be the same. From the beginning, men have been trained and conditioned to be the dominant hunters in society, where as women were generally the less aggressive individuals in any given population. But after all, they were born to be different, excluding anatomical distinctions. In spite of medical enhancements, women live four to five years longer than men. They both have various reactions to certain prescription and over-the-counter drugs. Women are more susceptible to certain diseases like lung cancer and some HIV, although more men tend to carry the A.I.D.S. virus. But what makes them special in today’s social order? There are hundreds of variables to be considered to answer this question. However, with constant deliberation, the differences seem quite comprehensible as to why Men are from Mars and Women are from Venus, as the title of a recent book states. Family upbringing and society as a whole play an important role in the reason for men and women’s planetary diversity. First of all, whoever said men and women are equal had to have been naà ¯ve. Not only in the United States, but also in all countries of the world, women have always come in second to men. It begins in the hospital, boys get blue blankets whereas girls get pink. Then it is established in the household, the daughter does the dishes and helps mom with laundry, where as the son takes out the trash and lends a hand to his father building a doghouse. According to Student One, â€Å"throughout history, women were always the stay at home type who always cooked and cleaned ... ...and brag. Thus, it is not that â€Å"women are viewed as ‘scardy cats’, as Student Twenty-one stated, when their fears are brought out in the open. Family upbringing, and values, as well as society, as a whole, have surprisingly survived this inequality for many years, as a result it most likely will never change. â€Å"Only in a perfect society could woman†¦be as [free] as the average man† (Student Eight). It is possible, if given time, for such a utopia to exist. Women would be, called upon to open pickle jars, â€Å"let off easy† for harming their two-timing husbands and/or boyfriends, and will feel safe walking alone at night. Just as Student Six wroteâ€Å"[If] men can do it, why not women?† But for now, this obvious and sometimes overlooked inequality is needed because through cooperation, the lopsidedness of the relationship between men and women become one and the same.

Mother and Daughter, a Heavenly Relationship Failed Essay

Daughter and mother relationship is an endless topic for many writers. They are meant to share the bond of love and care for each other. In the real world, however, their relationship is not as successful as it ought to be. The stories â€Å"How to Talk to Your Mother† and â€Å"I Stand Here Ironing† are the examples of this conflict. Lorrie Moore is distinguished for the clever wordplay, irony and sardonic humor of her fiction. â€Å"How to Talk to Your mother† is a short story in her collection Self-Help. It is about a failed relationship of a daughter and her mother over time. Similarly, Tillie Olsen’s â€Å"I Stand Here Ironing† portrays powerfully the economic and domestic burdens a poor woman faced, as well as the responsibility and powerlessness she feels over her child’s life. Both stories have the same theme, but each has different technique, and the conflicts from the characters are opposite. Poor communication over time is the theme both stories share. In â€Å"How to Talk to Your Mother,† Ginny, the author, faded the relationship with her mother as time goes and things changed from 1939 to 1982. In 1952, Ginny started to break away by slamming the door and say â€Å"Don’t I know it† (Moore 105) when her mother asks about her crush in junior high. Then, she becomes a young adult with a new life and would not come home for holidays. However, it is not until her mother called her by her sister’s name that makes she feels uncomfortable. â€Å"Learn that you have a way of knowing each other which somehow slips out and beyond the ways you have of not knowing each other at all† (Moore 103). The simply â€Å"How to† title belies the complexities of broken communication between mother and daughter. Ginny attempts to communicate with her mother throughout decades, but it never works. In â€Å"I Stand Here Ironing,† the mother faced the same problem with poor communication. Readers feel deeply sorry for the mother as she is economically alone, lonely, overworked and tired. The mother is always busy and preoccupied with other children. â€Å"I was working, there were four smaller ones now, there was not time for her† (Olsen 191). She has little or no time to talk to Emily, the daughter. The only time they met each other is at night, when Emily is struggle over books and the mother be ironing, or do other house chores. In both stories, the mothers and daughters have really  poor communication. Each character has her own life and stared to ignore their love ones. Ginny lives her wild life with romance. On the other hand, the mother in â€Å"I Stand Here Ironing† is so busy with her low-class life. As a result, their relationship failed as time rolls. Although both stories share similarity, each story was written with different styles, point-of-views, and languages. Lorrie Moore presents â€Å"How to Talk to Your Mother† in reverse chronological order, from latest to earliest. This technique supports her main idea by illustrating the broken communication pattern existing since the narrator’s childhood. With this style, readers find it amusing as they can read forward or backward. Moreover, this kind of writing is very rare in literature. Tillie Olsen’s â€Å"I Stand Here Ironing† was written in a traditional flashback. It started with the mother blaming herself for Emily’s outturn. Then, she remembered all the life events that result in bad decisions she made for Emily. Both stories also have different point-of-view. â€Å"How to Talk to Your Mother† is told in second-person, using â€Å"you,† instead of â€Å"I.† The second-person narration distances the narrator from the pa in inflicted by her mother, father, and lovers. This is Moore’s clever choice. Readers can relate and sympathize with Ginny. On the other hand, â€Å"I Stand Here Ironing† is told in first-person. The mother is telling readers about her faults and her attempts to help Emily through difficult years. Readers can see the hardship the mother faced and understand her situation. Nevertheless, Moore writes the story like one would write in her diary, very informal. The full title is â€Å"How to Talk to Your Mother (Notes),† and the language is not very aesthetic. On the contrast, Olsen writes her story in formal, literature language. In response to her story, Helen Pike Bauer writes: â€Å"Olsen’s story is a dialogue between circumstances and desire, constraint and love, absence and presence, silence and speech, power and helplessness.† The conflicts of each character are opposite. The primary conflict in â€Å"How to Talk to Your Mother† is between Ginny and herself. She feels like she has her own life and her mother becomes annoying. In 1971, she wrote: â€Å"Go for long walks to get away from her. Walk through wooded area; there is a life you have forgotten† (Moore 103). Throughout the story, readers can see the  broken relationship is resulted from the external events of her life. She has three abortions and involving many relationships with men that she don’t even like. â€Å"Sometimes you confuse her with the first man you ever love, who ever loved you †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Moore 102). Ginny almost blamed herself for their relationship. Her mom is always there, in her house since 1967. A year before death, her mother tells her: â€Å"Is that any way to talk to your mother (Moore 101)?† While Ginny experienced the external conflict of her life, the mother in â€Å"I Stand Here Ironing† faced an internal conflict involving Emily. She makes a very meaningful statement at the end of story: help Emily to know that â€Å"she is more than this dress on the ironing board, helpless before the iron† (Olsen 193). The mother constantly referred to the bad decisions she had made for Emily during her childhood. She sent Emily to live with her relatives as a toddler and came back with â€Å"all baby loveliness gone† (Olsen 188). Then, she sent her off again to a convalescent home. These decisions caused the mother to constantly nag at her internal self. Emily turned to a comedic teen is the result of the mother’s ignorant and poor relationship, which makes the mother blaming herself. She feels like the conflict is caused by her and Emily deserved a better life. Thackeray says, â€Å"God cannot be everywhere and therefore he made mother.† Parents are the caretaker of their children. From their experiences, they know what is best and they would never mean ill for them. â€Å"How to Talk to Your Mother† and â€Å"I Stand Here Ironing† are short stories that remind readers to cherish their relationships with parents. Both stories have the same theme of communication, but each has different technique, and the conflicts from the characters are opposite. Their situations are very difficult: poverty, low-class, and early motherhood. Lorrie Moore writes â€Å"How to Talk to Your Mother† to mock the popular â€Å"How-to† style. She marks off each stage of the plot by repeated works and ideas of heart, babies, containers, and unsuccessful talks between mother and daughter. Tillie Olsen writes â€Å"I Stand Here Ironing† with many symbolisms. For example, the iron is the torment, outside pressures. The dress is her problem, or Emily. The mother is ironing out the problem from inside her heart. Both stories carry the same message of mother and daughter relationship that most people faced the same path. In the society right now, there are many children experienced  child abuses. As for many parents, they could not get their kids to listen to them. The heavenly relationship failed as lives go on.